Italy

Italia

Country context

At the present time Italian is used as the main language by around 90% of the Italian population, and also as the spoken language (ISTAT, 2007). This is a radical change from the centuries old idiomatic Italian tradition, characterised by a prevalence of local languages.

Before the Unification of Italy (1861), Italian was the language used for centuries as the literary language, but it was only spoken in the Florentine-Tuscan and Roman areas (De Mauro, 1963, 1979, 1994). After 1861, the political unification of the country determined a need for linguistic unification and the use of a standard language. As a consequence, in 150 years there has been a noticeable decrease in the use of dialects. Approximately 6.4% of the population now speak only dialect inside and outside the home, with more than 40% of Italians reporting the use of both Italian and dialect, depending on the context. Similarly, some R/M languages have, over time, resisted forces of unification and are spoken by 3.9% of the population (ISTAT, 2007).

Despite the general diffusion of standard Italian, used by the vast majority of Italian society, Italy still presents a linguistic identity characterised by a wide range of dialects, varieties and registers, which places it among the countries which even today present a relatively high index of linguistic diversity (http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=country).

To this complex panorama, a new factor has been added in recent years: the immigration of people from some of the poorest countries. Foreigners in Italy today total more than 5,000,000 - one immigrant for every 12 residents (Caritas, 2011). A census regarding immigrant languages does not currently exist, but research carried out in various areas of Italy estimate that approximately 200 new languages are present in the country (Bagna, Barni, Vedovelli, 2006; Barni, 2008). Immigration in Italy is characterised by the polycentricity of the place of origin, by various modalities of settlement in the territory from a quantitative and qualitative point of view (length of time, type of permanence, immigration projects etc.). Nowadays there is no area in Italy where immigrants are not present and cannot act like a force of language change from the bottom up (Vedovelli, 2010). 

The configuration of the Italian linguistic space, between the extreme of seeking a monolingual state and that of present and renewed plurilingualism, is reflected in the results of the research.

Languages in official documents and databases

The national language, foreign languages and a range of R/M languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or language policy documents. The learning and teaching of the national language abroad for children and/or adults originating from Italy is (co-)funded in more than 30 countries in Europe and abroad. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been signed by government but has not been ratified by parliament in Italy. At the national level, however, the following 12 R/M languages are recognised, protected and/or promoted in official country documents or legislation: Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, Franco-Provençal, French, Friulian, German, Greek, Ladin, Occitan, Sardinian and Slovene. Official provision in education is commonly available in regions where these languages are spoken.

Official nation-wide data collection mechanisms on language diversity in Italy in terms of periodically updated survey data. In these data collection mechanisms, national and R/M language varieties are addressed, based on a home language question.

Although in the Constitution (1946) no reference is made to Italian as the official language of the Republic, but minorities are mentioned and claimed to be preserved, it was only around fifty years later that R/M languages were recognised and protected by law (482/1999). Such recognition has not been ratified in the Council of Europe’s European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML). 

In 2010 an Italian test for immigrants requiring long term residency was introduced (D.M. 4/06/2010) and in 2011 competence in the Italian language became one of the key issues for the integration agreement between an immigrant and the State (D.P.R. 14/09/ 2011, n. 179).

With regard to documentation on languages, Italy falls behind some other European countries, with not even the most recent census (2011) including a question regarding languages or dialects. One positive step is reflected in the Multiscopo surveys, among which the most recent, carried out in 2006, has shown the plurality of languages present today and used on a daily basis by Italians (ISTAT, 2007). Overall research on immigrant languages still has to be carried out, apart from data on individual local situations.

Languages in pre-primary education

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support 
FL:  all  restricted  no support 
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
NL:  all  immigrant children only  no support 
3 none none none
Duration
≥2 years 1 year <1 year  
3 none none none
Minimum group size requirements
 none  5-10  >10
3 none none none
Days per week
 >1 day  0.5-1 day  <0.5 day
3 none none none
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none
1 none none none
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none
2 none none none
State funding available
full partial none
3 none none none

Languages offered in pre-primary education

R/M Languages

Albanian, Croatian, Franco-Provençal ,French, Friulian, Occitan, German, Greek, Ladin, Sardinian, Slovene

Foreign Languages

-

Immigrant Languages

-

In general, the modest results shown in the pre-primary, primary and secondary education domains show that little attention is given to other languages, whether foreign or immigrant. The results in these domains can be related to the weakness of the competence in foreign languages by many Italians, documented in studies such as Eurobarometer (2006) and Eurydice/Eurostat (2008).

At the same time, the general results bring to light that, from pre-primary to upper secondary school, there is room for improvement with regard to the range of languages offered, organisation of learning; and training for language teachers. Furthermore, it should be noted that English is the language which is taught and encouraged the most among foreign languages at all school levels. 

In pre-primary education, the only languages offered are the R/M, and only in the areas where they are present, thanks to the protection in the law. No offer is provided in any foreign language.

Languages in primary education

Organisation

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
3 2 none
Languages used as a medium of instruction (CLIL)
  widespread localised absent  
3 1 none
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support
FL:  all  restricted  no support
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
3 3 none
Start of language education
from year 1 from mid-phase end-phase only  
3 3 none
Scheduling
in school hours partly in school hours  outside school hours   
3 3 none
Minimum group size requirements
none 5-10 >10  
3 3 none
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised  school based  absent   
1 2 none
Level to be achieved
Other NL: national or regional norms school norms not specified
FL: linked to CEFR national or school norms not specified
IL: national or regional norms school norms not specified
1 2 none
State funding available
full partial none  
3 3 none

 

NL

National Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
2
Extra support for newcomers
before mainstream during mainstream  absent   
1
Diagnostic testing on entry
all immigrants only absent  
1
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised  school based  absent   
2

Teaching

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers  unqualified   
2 2 none
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2 1 none
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2 2 none
Mobility
incorporated into training informal financial support no informal financial support not applicable  
0 1 0

 

NL

National Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers  unqualified   
3
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2

Languages offered in primary education

R/M Languages

Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, Franco-Provençal, French, Friulian, Occitan, German, Greek, Ladin, Sardinian, Slovene

Foreign Languages

English: compulsory

Immigrant Languages

-

In primary education English is the only language offered and its strong support at all school levels is justified by the fact that English will be used by pupils in the future, with no consideration of surveys and studies such as ELAN (2006) which highlight that other languages are also important in the work arena. Other languages which are spoken at home by pupils with an immigrant background have entered into schools (they are present in approximately 90% of state schools), but the maintenance of such languages is not part of the educational objectives. The same is true regarding structured support for the learning of Italian as a second language (L2), although this may be introduced into projects by individual schools. Otherwise, the recognition and protection of R/M languages has positive consequences on education, in terms of organisation and teacher training, in the areas where R/M languages are spoken.

In primary education, Italy’s profile is lower than many other countries in terms of both foreign language organisation and teaching. These results are due to the lack of a coherent curriculum, absence of regular monitoring and explicit requirements as to the proficiency level to be achieved. This is linked to other issues that have direct consequences on the linguistic offer throughout education, including: lack of pre- and in-service training for primary teachers of foreign languages; and an absence of a culture of linguistic assessment in Italy (Machetti, 2010), both at the research level and in teacher training. This has a direct impact on schools’ and teachers’ attitudes towards language testing and assessment (Barni, Machetti, 2005). This is true also for the other school levels.

Languages in secondary education

Organisation

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
3 2 none
Languages used as a medium of instruction (CLIL)
widespread localised absent  
2 2 none
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support
FL:  all  restricted  no support
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
3 3 none
Scheduling
in school hours partly in school hours outside school hours  
3 3 none
Minimum group size requirements
none 5-10 >10  
3 3 none
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised school based absent  
1 2 none
Level to be achieved
Other NL: national or regional norms school norms not specified not applicable
FL: linked to CEFR national or school norms not specified not applicable
IL: national or regional norms school norms not specified not applicable
2 2 none
State funding available
full partial none  
3 3 none

 

NL

National Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
2
Extra support for newcomers
before mainstream during mainstream absent  
1
Diagnostic testing on entry
all immigrants only absent  
1
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised school based absent  
2

Teaching

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers unqualified  
3 3 none
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 2 none
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 2 none
Mobility
incorporated into training some financial support none not applicable  
0 1 0
Language level required
linked to CEFR national or region-wide standards none not applicable  
0 2 0

 

NL

National Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers unqualified  
3
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2
Language level required for non-native speakers
linked to CEFR national or school-based norms not specified  
3

Languages offered in secondary education

R/M Languages

Albanian, Catalan, Croatian, Franco-Provençal, French, Friulian, Occitan, German, Greek, Ladin, Sardinian, Slovene

Foreign Languages

English and another foreign language: compulsory in lower secondary

English: compulsory in higher secondary (with the exception of schools with programmes related to language learning)

Immigrant Languages

-

Secondary schools show relatively better results. The presence of a second foreign language in lower secondary schools and the offer of R/M languages are factors which contribute to increasing language richness. In higher secondary education, however, English dominates once again. More languages (mainly French, German and Spanish) are offered only in education institutions where the main objective is language learning. 

The effects of the recent introduction of legislation regarding Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) methodology (DD.PP.RR. 87, 88, 89 15/03/2010) in the last year of higher secondary education (starting in language schools from the third year) are not yet possible to predict, also because teacher training for this objective has not yet been activated and furthermore it is supported by a limited budget. The same is true for the recent introduction of MA degrees and pre-service training courses (TFA) for teachers in secondary schools (D.M. 10/09/ 2010, n. 249). 

As in the other school levels, recognition and support for immigrant languages in secondary schools is completely absent.

Languages in Further and Higher Education

Further Education (in three institutions)

 

Institution A Institution B Institution C

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Range of language support programmes
 wide variety  limited  no specifications
none 3 2 2 3 none none 2 none
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines
none 3 2 3 3 none none 2 none
Level to be achieved
linked to CEFR national none not applicable
0 3 0 0 3 0 0 1 0
State funding available
full partial none
none 2 1 2 2 none none 2 none

Additional NL
support

National Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages
Range of language support programmes
 wide variety  limited  no specifications
3 3 3
Target groups
all restricted none
1 2 3
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines
3 3 3
Job related skills
yes no
3 1 3
General upskilling
yes no
3 3 3
State funding available
full partial none
3 3 3
Internships in companies
built into course optional none
1 1 1
Use of EU instruments
yes no
1 1 1

Languages offered across 3 VET institutions in Italy

R/M Languages

Slovene

Foreign Languages

English, Spanish, French, German

Immigrant Languages

Arabic

Higher Education (in three institutions)

 

Institution A

Institution B

Institution C

Language(s) of instruction
 national, foreign and R/M national and foreign national only
2 2 2
Languages on website
 national, foreign and R/M national and foreign national only
2 2 2
Target groups for additional support in the national language
all restricted none
2 2 2
Level to be achieved in foreign language instruction
linked to CEFR national or institution-based none
1 1 3
Recruitment of non-national students
 international and immigrant only international only native speakers of national language
3 3 3
Mobility for language students
obligatory optional no offer
2 2 2
Mobility for non-language students
obligatory optional no offer
2 2 2

Languages offered across 3 higher education institutions in Italy

Arabic, Bengali, Catalan, Chinese, Korean, Danish, Hebrew, French, Japanese, Hindi, English, Dutch, Modern Greek, Norwegian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian / Croatian, Slovenian, Spanish, Swedish, German, Ukrainian, Vietnamese

As in other educational domains, in further education the overall linguistic offer in the three sample cities – Rome, Milan and Trieste – remains more or less linked to European languages, with English well above the others. 

In further education the teaching of Italian stands out due to the number of adult foreigners for which public adult education is the only means to learn the language of the society in which they live and work. In any case, we know that immigrants who invest in language training are low in number compared to the actual number living in Italy. The effects of the Ministerial Decree of 4 June 2010 – which has decreed it compulsory to pass an exam in Italian at level A2 in order to obtain a long term EC residence permit – and the recent integration agreement, which introduces competence in Italian as a requisite for living and working in Italy, cannot yet be calculated.

In the three universities, the range of languages is almost wide, but the languages are mainly present in language faculties and courses.

Languages in Audiovisual Media and Press

 

Rome

Milan

Trieste

Number of languages on radio
>4 3-4 1-2 national language only
4 3 3
Number of languages on television
>4 3-4 1-2 national language only
2 2 2
Non-national language TV productions
subtitled dubbed
1 1 2
Non-national language films in cinema
subtitled dubbed
1 1 1
R/M language programmes outside of region
always regularly sometimes never
1 1 3
Availability of sign language on TV
always regularly sometimes never
1 1 1

Languages offered in audiovisual media and press across 3 cities in Italy

Radio

English, French, Sinhala, Amharic, Arabic, Creole, Croatian, German, Polish, Portuguese, Romani, Romanian, Slovene, Spanish, Tagalog

Television

English, Slovene

Newspapers

English, German, French, Spanish, Albanian, Croatian, Slovene, Japanese, Turkish

The choice of languages in audiovisual media is quantitatively and qualitatively scarce. The practice of dubbing films and television programmes produced abroad does not help in giving contact with other languages. The only language occasionally available is English, but in a very limited way. The other languages offered on Radio are the languages used in the programmes produced by immigrant communities. Slovene, as a R/M language, has a certain presence in Trieste.

Better results are obtained with regards to newspapers. The languages available reflect both the presence of immigrant communities, but also of tourists, with the majority of newspapers being in European languages. We should not forget indeed that Italy is the destination for millions of tourists every year. In 2010 there were 44 million visitors, of which a fifth were from Germany alone. The top five countries (other than Germany these are France, Austria, Switzerland and Great Britain) represent almost 60% of visitors (RTBicocca, 2011). The presence of newspapers for sale in these languages seems to be motivated by the need to satisfy demand from these visitors rather than from Italians approaching these languages. We should also not forget that the average of Italian readers of books and newspapers is well below the European average (ISTAT, 2011; De Mauro, 2011). The newspapers in Slovene, Croatian and Albanian in Trieste represent the geographical and cultural proximity of the countries in which such languages are spoken and the historical opening of this city towards the Balkans.

Languages in public services and spaces

Institutionalised language strategies at city level

> 4 3-4 1-2  national language only

frequency of practice: widely practised occasionally practised not practised

Rome

Milan

Trieste

City council services

6 6 1

Website presence

1 3 0

Annual municipal reports

0 0 0

External or internal translators and interpreters

6 6 6

Competencies in languages other than the national language in job descriptions of staff members

4 6 1

Plan or scheme in place to increase skills in languages

0 5 1

Recruitment of speakers of other languages to support corporate objectives

1 0 4

Offer of training in languages to employees

4 5 4

Regularly updated record of skills in languages of employees

0 6 6

Reward or promotion schemes for being able to adequately communicate in other languages

0 0 0

Oral Communications Facilities

>4 3-4 1-2 national language only

Rome

Milan

Trieste

Political debates and decision-making processes at the city council level

1 1 1

Educational services

1 4 4

Emergency services

4 4 2

Health services

4 4 4

Social services

3 4 1

Legal services

4 3 3

Transport services

3 3 3

Immigration and integration services

4 4 1

Tourism services

4 4 4

Theatre programmes

2 2 2

Written Communications Facilities

>4 3-4 1-2 national language only

Rome

Milan

Trieste

Political debates and decision-making processes at the city council level

1 1 2

Educational services

1 1 4

Emergency services

3 3 3

Health services

1 4 4

Social services

1 4 1

Legal services

1 4 3

Transport services

4 2 3

Immigration and integration services

4 4 1

Tourism services

4 4 4

Theatre programmes

2 2 2

Languages offered in public services and public spaces across 3 cities in Italy (N ≥ 2)

English, Spanish, German, French, Romanian, Arabic, Slovene, Russian, Chinese, Croatian/Serbian, Albanian, Portuguese, Ukrainian, Japanese, Polish, Sinhala, Tagalog, Tigrigna, Bengali, Hindi, Nigerian languages, Turkish, Amharic, Panjabi, Persian, Urdu

None of the three cities chosen for the research have significant institutional strategies regarding the promotion of multilingualism. Linguistic competencies are generally not considered an important requirement for employees when being hired, as a career strategy, or as a form of training on site. In public services in Trieste, Slovene is present, both in written and oral communication facilities.

In these last two contexts the general profile of Italy has improved because in city council institutions, especially in services for residents, more attention is being paid to other languages due to the increasing demand from immigrants. This is proven by the informative publicity and mediation services which are mostly in languages such as Chinese, Arabic, Romanian, Russian and Albanian - the languages of the immigrant communities present in Italy.

However, even in these services, European languages are more prevalent, both for their use in tourism as well as their wide use among immigrants (in particular French and Spanish).

Languages in business - 24 companies

General Language Strategies

Widely Practised

Occasionally Practised

Not Practised

Availability of language strategy

7 5 12

Emphasis on language skills in recruitment

10 8 6

International mobility provision

6 6 12

Use of external translators/interpreters

2 12 10

Staff records of language skills

0 8 16

Use of networks for language training

3 6 15

Use of EU programmes/funding

5 1 18

Awareness of EU programmes/funding

0 12 12

Internal Language Strategies

Widely Practised Occasionally Practised Not Practised

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

Partnerships with education sector

2 4 2 2 5 2 20 15 18

Reward/Promotion schemes based on language skills

2 2 1 2 2 2 20 20 21

Language training provision

3 6 3 3 3 2 18 15 19

Use of CEFR

4 5 2 2 3 2 18 16 20

Language used for workplace documents/intranet

24 5 2 0 5 1 0 14 21

Language used for software, web programmes

21 5 1 1 8 2 2 11 21

External Language Strategies

Widely Practised Occasionally Practised Not Practised

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

Language used for annual/business reports

24 5 2 0 4 1 0 15 21

Language used for marketing

21 6 2 1 3 0 2 15 21

Language used for branding/identity

24 10 2 0 3 2 0 11 20

Language used for website

20 10 3 0 1 1 4 13 19

Languages other than English offered in business across 24 companies in Italy (N ≥ 2)

German, French, Russian, Croatian/Serbian, Japanese, Spanish, Polish

In the area of business Italy has obtained comparatively lower results, confirming what has already come to light in other research (ELAN, 2006). There is a lack of awareness on the part of the businesses (especially in the small and medium sized companies, which are key to the Italian economy) of the fact that weak foreign language competence limits the possibility of internationalisation in an ever more global market. The low consideration of the importance of even English, is also surprising, with it seen as being important for only certain categories of employees. The results for Italy are weaker than other countries in both Business English and other languages. The majority of companies surveyed provide branding and marketing, work place documents, the intranet, and their website only in the national language. This decreases the potentiality of reaching international markets, and this is particularly serious in the case of medium and large-sized companies. A consequence of this is the declaration by the businesses surveyed that they do not make much use of internal and external translators. Can we consider this as a sign of the reluctant attitude shown by Italian business towards foreign markets and consequently by foreign business to make investments in Italy? As we know (Land, 2000), the presence and use of different languages plays a key role in persuading companies to consider a place as a business location.

Key Findings overall

In conclusione, l’indagine conferma che la società italiana, in tutte le sue espressioni, vive una generale ‘questione delle lingue straniere’, una paura dominante nei confronti della diversità linguistica (Vedovelli, 2010). Di conseguenza, è scarsa la competenza nelle lingue straniere, da quelle di grande diffusione internazionale, a quelle meno diffuse, ma ugualmente importanti per la presenza di suoi parlanti nel territorio, per il loro legame con l’Italia e per fare affari nei mercati emergenti.
La causa va ricercata innanzitutto nel monolinguismo che è stato una delle caratteristiche distintive della politica linguistica e educativa dopo l’unificazione italiana e che è stato sostenuto da un rifiuto generale per le lingue degli altri. Secondariamente, è il risultato dell’inefficacia dell’azione istituzionale messa in atto dal nostro Stato, e caratterizzata dalla inadeguatezza delle risorse, dell’organizzazione, di formazione per i docenti, così come dalla mancanza di collegamenti sistemici con il mondo delle imprese. A scuola l’attenzione è solo centrata sull’inglese, che – peraltro – è insegnato in un contesto di limitatezza di risorse che rende spesso inefficace ogni sia pur volenteroso sforzo dei singoli docenti o delle singole scuole. Ancora oggi i giovani che terminano il nostro sistema scolastico sono caratterizzati nella assoluta maggioranza dei casi dalla ‘conoscenza scolastica’ di una lingua straniera e tale espressione è un eufemismo, un modo velato per alludere direttamente alla mancanza di competenza.
Le lingue immigrate presenti oggi in Italia costituiscono un fattore di neo-plurilinguismo che potrebbe potenzialmente contribuire a ridurre la paura di diversità linguistica nel nostro Paese, ma questa opportunità non è tuttora considerata.

Promising initiatives and pilots

L’introduzione della metodologia CLIL nella scuola secondaria di secondo grado, della laurea magistrale e del tirocinio per la formazione per gli insegnanti (TFA) potrebbero potenzialmente essere delle iniziative promettenti, ma non è ancora possibile verificarne gli effetti. La recente introduzione di un anno di Tirocinio Formativo Attivo (TFA, D.M. 249/2010 e D.M. 31/2012) per la formazione dei nuovi insegnanti nella scuola secondaria di II grado prevede l’apertura di corsi per insegnanti di cinese, arabo, giappones, neogreco e sloveno, oltre a quelli di inglese, francese, tedesco, spagnolo e russo, tradizionalmente presenti. Questa ci sembra un’importante iniziativa per la promozione del plurilinguismo e per il riconoscimento delle lingue RM e delle comunità immigrate.
Ci sono varie altre iniziative organizzate dalle singole scuole o anche da singoli insegnanti, che sono le testimonianze della capacità degli insegnanti stessi di mettere in atto risposte creative, in particolare per rispondere alla presenza di studenti che non parlano la lingua nazionale che entrano nelle loro classi. In alcuni casi, tali iniziative sono collegate e documentate a livello regionale, in particolare dalle istituzioni regionali (come la Toscana, la Lombardia, l’Emilia Romagna e il Trentino Alto-Adige) che più si impegnano nel sostegno linguistico. Tuttavia, in molti casi, queste iniziative sono legate all’insegnante o alla scuola, e pertanto nè destinate ad accompagnare il percorso scolastico degli alunni, né replicabili.

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